Allergies in dogs cause them to scratch themselves and lick the area of inflammation until sores develop on their skins. Due to the constant itching and scratching these sores become infected and pus formation occurs in them. In severe cases, dogs suffer from loss of hair. There are various options available to you in the form of both symptomatic relief and specific medication.

If you find your dog with allergic symptoms, try bathing it with cool water on a regular basis. You can provide additional relief by using eucalyptus and aloe vera based shampoos. You can also feed your dog a diet rich in minerals, vitamins and fatty acids to help in the healing process.

Several medicines can be used to treat allergic symptoms such as antihistamines or steroids like prednisone. Antibiotics can be used to treat infections. However, prolonged use of this kind of medication can lead to complications such as low immunity or liver related problems. Therefore, check with your veterinarian before giving your dog any of these medicines.

A popular option nowadays is to give your dog shots to prevent allergies from developing. However, these shots are expensive and may take even anything between a week to a year before starting to show results.

There are several other ways in which you can protect your dog from allergies. Atopy, which is caused by mold or pollen, can be kept at bay by vacuuming and cleaning those areas around which your dog stays.

For flea allergies, the best solution is to control the fleas and if possible, get rid of them completely. In order to keep fleas at bay, you need to brush your dog’s coat and groom it regularly. Anti-flea products like sprays, foggers and flea shampoos are also effective in curbing fleas.

If your dog is suffering from food allergies try and make modifications in the diet to make it hypoallergenic. Now start introducing a certain type of food at a time and see if your dog reacts to it. This will help you identify the allergen and you can then completely eliminate it from your dog’s diet.

The best way to keep your dog free from allergies is to avoid the allergens that cause the disease in the first place. This will automatically reduce the incidence of allergic reactions and help your pet in leading a healthy life. Therefore, the best cure for dog allergies is prevention.

Get more helpful tips and information on dog allergy today.

There are many conditions which can make a dog itch or sneeze, including autoimmune. endocrine, and parasitic skin diseases. Therefore, it takes some detective work to identify the cause.

If allergies are suspected, the first thing a veterinarian will normally ask is if the dog is on any kind of flea-control product. Flea allergies are quite common and are the easiest to control. Dog owners have many options available from high-street and online pet stores.

If flea allergies are ruled out, food allergies are the next thing to be checked. Food allergies are not seasonal, while most atopic allergies begin as a seasonal problem.

Dogs that develop atopic allergies usually show symptoms between 1 and 5 years of age, but food allergies can be a problem at any time. They are high up on the list of suspected causes when a dog first gets itchy skin at an age less than 6 months, or over 5 years.

To test for food allergies, the dog is put on an “elimination diet” for around 10 weeks. This means it is fed food, which is high in protein and carbohydrate. which it has not eaten before, such as duck, venison, and potatoes.

These special foods, which come in packets or cans like normal dog food, may be found in pet stores. Or, the owner may choose to feed the dog a homemade diet of foods based on recommendations from the veterinarian.

If the dog’s itching subsides, the allergen is considered to be one or more food ingredients. To confirm this, the owner can reintroduce the old diet to see if the symptoms return.

To check a dog for atopic allergies, veterinarians use an intradermal allergy test, or skin reaction test. The dog is mildly sedated, a small area on the side of the dog is shaved, and small amounts of common allergens are injected into the skin. Should the dog be allergic to a particular substance, the skin will become slightly inflamed at the area of the injection.

More : Dog Allergies Treatment

Just as you won’t see a 15-year-old hu­man marathoner, you shouldn’t see a six-month-old puppy pulling a sled. These athletic endeavours re­quire not only training, but maturation, and pups have exercise limitations that must be respected. By avoiding the pitfalls of overtraining, you can create a canine athlete that performs well and stays healthy throughout its life.

A pup destined for agility, hunting, coursing, racing, sledding, search and rescue, police duty or other work must have the right genetic qualifica­tions for its job. You can’t expect a Pug to run for speed, or a Basset Hound to bound over a wall. Besides physical ca­pability, dogs must also have an in­nate motivation to perform their duties. A guard dog needs a disposition that’s quite different from a dog that excels in search and rescue.

Even if a dog has the right disposition for the job set out for him, he won’t be able to fulfill his role unless he is healthy. A dog with a joint condition such as hip or elbow dysplasia will find it too painful to excel in a duty requiring heavy activity. As well, excessive exercise will aggravate dysplastic joints, so they develop arthritis faster. Dogs destined for strenuous activity are usually screened for orthopaedic problems before time and funds are dedicated to their training. Hip ra­dio­graphs are manda­tory in many working dogs.

Health concerns are not confined to bone diseases. Some breeds are susceptible to inherited eye problems such as progressive retinal atrophy (PRA). Testing for this disease and others is breed and duty specific.

Once a pup is declared healthy, a planned schedule of exercises can be implemented, suited to the dog’s ability and the desired result.

How the body responds
The biggest mistake most trainers make is stepping up the duration of a young pup’s activity too quickly. To avoid this problem, it is important to understand how the body responds to exertion.

Consider a puppy in the first stages of a training pro­gram. Even on short runs, the pup tires quickly. Not only does the puppy have poor endurance, he’s clumsy. It takes a while to develop the fine motor control needed for a flowing gait.

The body’s first physical response to exercise is to in­­crease muscle mass. When the heart is pushed hard, its muscle builds so it can pump more blood with less effort. The same occurs in skeletal muscles, which en­large as exercise stresses them. Muscular response can be rapid. Many owners see changes in endurance and muscle mass within a few weeks of initiating training.

Muscle is not the only factor to consider. The ligaments that connect bone to bone and the tendons that connect muscle to bone don’t respond to exercise as fast as muscle does. This means that the muscles can overdevelop in relation to the structures that hold them together. Due to their pure power, muscles can strain (stretch) ligaments and tendons beyond their capacity.

Trainers frequently report that just as things seem to be going well, injuries occur. To avoid this outcome, increase distance slowly and stick to a schedule. Resist the temptation to let your dog run long distances just because he can.

Exercise techniques
Walking is the best way to initiate any training program. It requires no equipment and can be done any time. It can also be done at varying paces that match your long-term training goals. No matter what level your dog is exercising at, he needs a brisk walk. Allow him to sniff at the start, then get to work. If you find your puppy tires, reduce the distance by a third the next time you go.

Variety helps maintain interest and boosts skill development. For example, an agility dog may work a few obstacles in one week, but different obstacles the next week. A search and rescue dog may work on tracking one week and endurance the next.

Jumps can be used to strengthen your pup’s back and develop coordination. These can be made from coffee cans and broomsticks. For little breeds, punch holes in milk cartons and run a dowel between them. Make sure you put jumps on secure footing, and don’t leash your dog while he’s jumping as a leash can throw him off balance. Start with just a few jumps and slowly increase the number. If he re­fuses, he’s probably tired, so stop.

You don’t want your dog to be over-challenged with a jump, so keep the height low – no higher than his wrist for the first few weeks. As the pup grows and his ability to jump improves, slowly raise the bar to elbow height. Don’t go higher than the elbows until he’s mastered the jumps and has a mature skeleton.

Bones are considered mature when their growth plates close. In small dogs, this might occur at six months of age. In Great Danes, it could be as late as 14 months. Too much stress on bones while the growth plates are open can cause damage and irregular growth.

Endurance training is only for dogs with mature skeletons. If you take a six-month-old puppy on a 10-mile run, you are setting him up for injury and long-term orthopaedic issues. Just as it takes years of training for a human (an adult at that) to run long distances, it takes time to get a dog conditioned for endurance work. It’s critical that the bone support system (tendons/ligaments) be well prepared to accept the stress.

Your job, like that of any coach, is to develop your puppy’s ability without causing injury. Always start new activities at an easy level, and advance slowly so his body can develop. If you do it right, he will be able to enjoy an active life well into his senior years.

By Jeff Grognet, D.V.M.
A multi-published writer, Jeff Grognet, D.V.M., B.S.c.(Agr.), runs a veterinary practice in Qualicum Beach, B.C., along with his wife, Louise Janes, D.V.M.

Entropion is an inward turning of the eyelid margin. This condition is presumed to be inherited when it occurs at a young age (usually within the first two years) and as a dog grows.
Depending on the breed, entropion may affect various portions of the eyelid(s). For example, large- and giant-breed dogs are predisposed to entropion affecting the outer aspect of the lower eyelid, so-called lateral or lateral ventral entropion. Small breeds have a predisposition for entropion of the inner corner of the eyelids, so-called medial or medial ventral entropion.

Depending on its severity, entropion may cause signs ranging from mild tearing to severe eye discomfort with squinting, copious tearing and damage to the surface of the eye including an ulcer, brown pigment and/or blood-vessel growth in the normally transparent cornea. Some affected dogs outgrow their entropion as their facial bones and eyelids develop. However, permanent entropion associated with signs of eye irritation will require some form of surgical correction to prevent continued discomfort and damage.

Ectropion is an outward turning of the eyelid margin that results in varying degrees of exposure of the conjunctiva (pink tissue lining the eyelids), and an inability of the eyelids to completely close during blinking. Ectropion is characteristic of breeds such as the Bloodhound, Bullmastiff, Newfoundland and many spaniel breeds. Most cases of ectropion don’t cause significant eye irritation and, hence, do not require surgery. Some dogs with ectropion experience constant or intermittent eye discharge, conjunctivitis or disease of the cornea and therefore benefit from surgical correction of the ectropion.

Distichia are hairs on the eyelid margin that come from an abnormality of the meibomian (tarsal) glands. These hairs are, in a sense, misplaced eyelashes and most do not cause any problems. Distichiasis is the condition caused by distichia that generates signs of eye irritation, including tearing, squinting, conjunctivitis, and inflammation/ulcers of the cornea. It is treated by microsurgical removal of the abnormal gland and hair follicle, electrocautery, electrolysis or freezing/cryotherapy.

Ectopic cilia are hairs arising from the meibomian gland and growing through the pink tissue lining the inside of the eyelid, causing eye irritation. Small breeds appear predisposed to this condition. These abnormal small hairs rub on the surface of the eye, causing squinting, excessive tearing, conjunctivitis, and ulcers of the cornea. Because ectopic cilia are small, diagnosis is difficult without the aid of magnification. The treatment of choice is surgery to remove the ectopic cilia. They are often multiple. Younger affected dogs have an increased likelihood of developing additional ectopic cilia.

Trichiasis is a condition in which hairs located in normal sites around the eye (e.g., skin folds around the nose, eyelids) are directed at and rubbing against the surface of the eye, resulting in tearing and inflammation of the cornea. This is a common condition in small-breed dogs. Mild degrees of trichiasis not causing disease of the cornea do not require therapy. In certain cases, simply keeping the offending hairs clipped short, so they are no longer in contact with the eye, is adequate. If the trichiasis is severe, surgical correction, although variably successful, is required.

Trichomegaly is an abnormally long eyelash. This condition is typically an incidental finding in a variety of breeds, the genetics of which have not been determined. Trichomegaly is most commonly seen in the American Cocker Spaniel, and Toy and Miniature Poodles.

Corneal dystrophy is an inherited or breed-related whitish deposit of cholesterol or fat that occurs at varying depths within the cornea. Corneal dystrophy affects both eyes and appears symmetrical between the eyes, typically in a central to off-central location.

When the epithelium (outer layer of the cornea) is involved, recurrent eye irritation from erosions/ulcers of the cornea is common. Corneal epithelial dystrophy is reported most commonly in the Shetland Sheepdog, Basset Hound, Dachshund and Border Collie.

Corneal stromal dystrophy, affecting the mid region of the cornea, may be seen in any breed of dog, and usually develops between two and four years of age. There is typically no treatment required for this form of dystrophy as the deposits tend to be small and progress minimally. However, when the dystrophy involves the endothelium (the cornea’s innermost layer), severe progressive cloudiness or bluish haziness to the surface of the eye is common. Corneal endothelial dystrophy shows up later in life (eight to 12 years) and is diagnosed in several breeds. Treatment includes eye drops or ointment. Corneal transplant remains the treatment of choice for maintaining vision.

Pigmentary keratitis is a disease of small-breed dogs in which brown pigment starts to cover the cornea. Blood vessels and scarring often accompany the pigment, and all three opacities interfere with vision. Several factors contribute to this syndrome and are related to the eyelid structure of dogs with “pushed in” noses (i.e., brachycephalic breeds), such as Lhasa Apsos, Pekingese and Pugs. These breeds have shallow bony sockets, resulting in varying degrees of eye prominence and inability to completely close the eyelids with blinking; hairs at the inner corners of the eyes; and medial ventral entropion. Exposure of the eyes, and hairs rubbing on the eyes, result in irritation to the surface of the eyes, inducing pigmentation, blood-vessel growth and scarring on the cornea. Surgery to reconstruct the eyelids is recommended, especially if the pigmentary keratitis is progressing.

Chronic superficial keratitis (pannus) is a progressive inflammatory and potentially blinding disease of the cornea that always affects both eyes. This condition develops most commonly in German Shepherd Dogs and German Shepherd crosses, but also occurs in the Belgian Shepherd Dog, Border Collie, Bouvier des Flandres, Greyhound and large crossbred dogs, among others. Affected dogs develop a progressive cloudiness or “growth” of brown pigment and/or blood vessels starting at the outer edge of the cornea and advancing toward the centre. Without treatment, the entire cornea will become affected.

The exact cause of this inflammatory condition is unknown, although it is assumed to be a result of a defective immune reaction. Other factors have been associated with the development of pannus, including a genetic component for predisposed breeds, and dogs living at high altitudes (above 4,000 feet – related to ultraviolet light exposure). Treatment involves the use of medications – eye drops or ointment – to help suppress the immune reaction. Complete remission of pannus signs can result following prolonged therapy; however, lifelong treatment is required.

Persistent pupillary membranes (PPMs). Pupillary membranes are tiny remnants of blood vessels that are normally present in puppies before birth and typically disappear between three and five weeks of age. These remnant blood vessels appear as brown-pigmented strands of uveal tissue arising from the iris. If they fail to disappear, these tissues are called “persistent.”

There are four main forms of PPMs based on where they extend:

1) iris-to-iris (the most common form);

2) iris-to-lens;

3) iris-to-cornea; and

4) iris sheets.

PPMs are non-progressive and do not require treatment. Inheritance of PPMs has been documented or suspected in several breeds.

Iris coloboma is a notch-like defect or “hole” in the iris that can occur in any region but usually develops at the 6 o’clock position. Colobomas may occur alone without other eye abnormalities, but more commonly they are associated with additional eye defects, as noted in colour-dilute breeds such as the merle Australian Shepherd. There is no treatment for this condition; however, selective breeding can prevent it.

Uveal cysts are variably brown/pigmented, round, fluid-filled structures that arise from the blood-vessel-rich layer of the eye, namely the iris and ciliary body. Uveal cysts may occur in one eye as a single cyst or multiple cysts, or they may be present in both eyes. The Boston Terrier, Great Dane, Labrador and Golden Retrievers, and Norwegian Elkhound are predisposed to this disease.

Uveal cysts may also develop due to trauma or long-standing inflammation inside the eye but because they can mimic melanomas or other tumours inside the eye, a complete eye examination is recommended. Treatment for uveal cysts is typically not required. In rare instances, the cysts (mainly those arising from the ciliary body) may be associated with glaucoma. In addition, dogs with uveal cysts that interfere with vision may require referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist for laser ablation or deflation using a needle.

Cataracts, a whitish opacity or cloudiness of the lens, may range from non-progressive, tiny and non-vision-threatening to rapidly progressive, complete and blinding. Genetics is the most common cause of cataracts in dogs. Inherited cataracts have been reported in several breeds. Dogs affected with inherited cataracts and carriers of the genetic defect should not be bred.

Treatment is indicated if the cataracts are large and interfere with vision and/or cause cataract-related inflammation inside the eye(s). Medical therapy can help control the inflammation. Surgery to remove the cataracts is required to restore vision.

Lens luxation is displacement of the lens caused by disruption of the fibres (zonules) that hold it in place. An inherited disorder of the zonules affecting both eyes (one eye may be affected first), so-called primary lens luxation, has been reported in dogs. This condition occurs due to an inherited deterioration/degeneration of the zonules.

Breeds predisposed to this condition include the terrier breeds, American Cocker Spaniel, Beagle, Border Collie, Chihuahua, Chinese Shar Pei, Miniature and Toy Poodles, Miniature Schnauzer and Pembroke Welsh Corgi. Clinical signs include red eye, cloudy eye and vision impairment, often as a result of the development of glaucoma with progressive lens displacement.

Lens luxations are typically considered an emergency, requiring early diagnosis and medical treatment initially, and prompt referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist if possible.

It is important to determine the cause of the lens luxation. In addition to inherited primary lens luxation, there are secondary causes of lens displacement, such as trauma, inflammation or tumour inside the eye, and glaucoma, all of which should be distinguished from primary lens luxation to help determine the prognosis and whether or not the affected dog should be used for breeding. If a diagnosis of lens luxation is made early in the course of the disease and the eye maintains vision, referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist for surgery to remove the lens is recommended.

Progressive retinal atrophy/degeneration (PRA/PRD) is an inherited slow deterioration/degeneration of the retina. PRA/PRD has been described in numerous breeds. Depending on the affected breed, PRA/PRD may be early-onset (six to 10 weeks of age) or late-onset (as late as seven years of age).

As the name of the condition implies, PRA/PRD is progressive and leads to blindness over months to years, depending on the affected breed. PRA/PRD affects both eyes equally, and results in loss of night vision followed by loss of day vision, hence blindness.

Most of these retinal degenerations are inherited as an autosomal recessive condition, meaning that affected dogs carry both mutated genes and the clinical signs of the disease, while other dogs in the affected litter may be carriers of one mutated gene with no clinical signs of disease. The diagnosis of PRA/PRD can be confirmed by an eye examination (see CERF sidebar) and/or electroretinography (electrodiagnostic test used to assess retinal function). As well, DNA testing using blood from dogs in question has now become available in some breeds.

Here, Fido! Look what Mommy’s got for you…a toothbrush! Exit Fido.

Can it be said that anybody actually enjoys brushing their teeth? Just as we can coerce young children into brushing twice a day, there are ways to get your dog used to having his teeth brushed.

Dr. Sandy Hale, a veterinary dentist in Guelph, Ont., emphasizes the need for regular dental care, noting that good oral health results in better overall health. Dr. Hale insists that a dog’s teeth should be brushed daily – twice daily for those with poor periodontal health. And it’s not just the teeth that need brushing: “Done properly, brushing the gums is highly beneficial,” he says. “It removes plaque and massages the gum tissue, helping to flush fluid and debris from below the gum line. It stimulates fibroblasts [collagen-producing cells] within the gingiva [gum tissue] to produce collagen, the main structural protein of the gingiva, helping to make them tough and resilient. But brushing too hard can traumatize the gingiva.”

How do you get your dog to cooperate or even enjoy having his teeth brushed? Here are five tips:

A puppy will be more inclined to accept daily tooth care. The best age to start is eight weeks, taking a hiatus when your puppy’s baby teeth begin to fall out, so as not to irritate already sensitive gums. Resume when adult teeth are in, and normal. If your dog is an adult, it’s never too late to introduce a new routine, approaching gently and using consistency and repetition. You can teach an old dog new dental tricks.

There is no need to spend a lot of money on specialty canine toothbrushes. Use a child-sized, ultra-soft-bristled brush available at any drug store. The smaller brush head and soft bristles ensure less discomfort and therefore less resistance. And what about flavoured canine toothpaste? Dr. Hale says, “I have yet to see any convincing studies to show that adding toothpaste adds any significant benefit over brushing with plain water. One study in human patients found that the brush accounted for 98 per cent of the effect.” Your dog might like a flavour, though, and the more he likes this process, the easier it will be for both of you.

There is always someone in the dog’s family with whom he has a particularly close bond. This person is likely to be the one the dog will trust to initiate a tooth-brushing regimen. That person should begin as he would with any new training session: gradually and with patience, using positive verbal reinforcement.

Brush at the same time every day, with the same person doing the brushing, and use repeated language to signal it’s time for the daily tooth-care session. Pick a suitable time. If you’re in a rush in the morning and your dog is full of energy, brush his teeth in the evening. Perform the brushing in the same place every time; the kitchen or bathroom are good locations, but provide a non-slip mat.

Save a favourite treat to be given only when the brushing is complete, and not at any other time. Dr. Hale says, “Rewards are key to success with any training program. However, the reward has to follow the desired behaviour within just a few seconds for the dog to draw a connection between cause and effect.” If the reward is good enough, it just may inspire your dog to ask to have her teeth brushed every day!

Begin dental brushing only in a healthy mouth. There is no point brushing teeth in need of professional attention. Get a check-up and perhaps a cleaning done first and use brushing for regular, healthy maintenance.

Brush. Don’t rush. Reward. And smile!

Pamela Delaney is a widely published, award-winning writer. She recently finished her satirical memoir Lives Have Nine Cats and Other Tales of Pet Motherhood. Pamela lives in Cobourg, Ont.

Owners do two things that make cuts worse. One is allowing the dog to lick. Some owners still believe that licking helps heal a cut.

It doesn’t. The other is not taking a cut seriously, and failing to get it looked at.

A cut foot is a common injury. Each one is treated differently depending on where it is and how deep it is. The main distinction is whether the cut is on a footpad or on the skin above it.

If it is just superficial (not through the skin surface), we can call it a scrape, which normally heals without suturing. Scrapes should be cleaned with an antibacterial soap, dried, covered with an antibiotic ointment, then bandaged. The covering keeps it clean and prevents further trauma, and stops the dog from licking the cut.

An active tongue keeps cuts wet, creating the perfect breeding ground for bacteria as well as providing the bacteria themselves. Bandages sometimes need protection so they aren’t pulled off. An Elizabethan collar works well for this.

If the cut penetrates the skin, suturing is desirable to decrease healing time. The veterinarian cleans the cut to remove dirt and reduce the chance of infection.

If the cut is more than a day old, the cut surface needs debriding (trimming to remove the contaminated surface). Sutures then pull the skin edges together. Antibiotics are often prescribed.

A cut in a pad is much more complicated because pads are weight-bearing. Think of a cut on the end of your thumb. Each time you press on it, the cut gapes open, slowing healing. The pad is the same, except the dog’s entire weight is on the pad.

Unless a pad cut is very shallow, it needs suturing and bandaging. A plastic splint inside the bandage cups the foot, allowing pressure to be distributed over the entire foot rather than on just one spot.

You will find that veterinarians handle cuts on pads and feet in different ways. Some use a local anaesthetic; others use general anaesthetic. This is based on the attitude of the dog (some are willing to hold still), the seriousness of the wound (deeper wounds may be hard to “freeze”), and the comfort of the veterinarian using either technique.

A multi-published writer, Jeff Grognet, D.V.M., runs a veterinary practice in Qualicum Beach, B.C., along with his wife, Louise Janes, D.V.M.

My dog doesn’t like having his nails clipped. What can I do?

Many dogs don’t like having their nails clipped, or their paws touched. For this reason, I always recommend touching a puppy’s paws and nails frequently so he gets used to it.

There are many things you can do to improve the situation. First, let’s discuss technique. If your dog won’t hold still, you are more likely to injure him, so having an assistant will help. A small dog can be cradled in your helper’s arms. Place a medium or large dog on a grooming table if possible. Dogs don’t move as much when they’re not on the floor.

Stand beside your dog and grasp the paw nearest you. Gently take his paw and try to relax – if you’re nervous, your dog will be, too. Push away any hair that is covering the nail so you can see the entire nail. Try to keep your dog’s paw in a natural position and not too high off the table – he’ll pull away if he’s uncomfortable. Grasp each toe individually. The nail that is about to be cut should be held between your thumb and forefinger. Attempt to clip the nail only if your dog is not moving.

You or your assistant can try distracting the dog while you clip. Have your assistant offer very small tasty treats, one at a time, so he stays focused on the treat. If you’re working alone, use a toy that can be filled with treats and let him start working on it before you begin clipping.

rewarding as you go – every time you successfully clip a nail, give your dog a special treat. Hopefully he will begin to associate nail clipping with a reward. You can also try clipping only one or two nails in a session. Follow each session with a tasty treat.

The next thing to look at is your equipment. The nail clipper should be the right size for your dog and the blade should be sharp. Using a dull clipper (or a clipper with a worn spring) may result in the nail not being clipped properly and the nail may split.

There are basically two types of clippers on the market: a guillotine style (where the blade comes forward and slices the nail), or the pliers-type (where both blades come together and cut the nail). Try both types of clippers to see which style you and your dog prefer. Your dog may tolerate a nail grinder instead of a clipper. The grinder gradually grinds down the tip of the nail.

Some dogs will put their mouth on your hand or the clipper when you try to clip their nails. Some dogs may growl or bite. You may need to put a muzzle on your dog for your own safety.

If your dog has had a bad nail-clipping experience, he may not allow you to clip them. In this case, take him to your local groomer or vet.

Next to hip dysplasia, cruciate ligament injury is the most common orthopaedic condition seen in dogs. The cruciate ligaments are strong bands connecting the femur (upper thigh bone) to the tibia below. When a ligament breaks, the stifle (knee) becomes painful, unstable and prone to arthritis. The joint needs to be re-stabilized; however, besides controversy about what surgery is best, there is debate over whether surgery is needed at all.

Aruptured cruciate ligament can happen to any dog, large or small. It is reported most often in middle-aged dogs, but there is a recent trend of younger dogs developing the condition. Specifically, Rottweilers younger than four years of age seem prone to injury because of inherent degenerative changes in their ligaments. Obese dogs with sedentary habits are also at an increased risk.

Two cruciate ligaments, termed cranial and caudal, hold the knee joint together. They get the name from “crucifix” because they cross inside the joint. The cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) is the one that breaks most commonly in dogs. It prevents the tibia from moving forward in relation to the femur. This important fact aids in diagnosing a rupture.

The breaking strength of a cruciate ligament is approximately four times the weight of the dog. This makes it unlikely that a healthy ligament will break unless it’s under tremendous strain.

Researchers have found that many dogs over five years old have some degeneration of their CCL. In more than 80 per cent of ruptures, there is pre-existing damage. Ligament deterioration has been tied to conformational abnormalities such as patellar luxation, bow legs, straight stifles and hocks. It has also been linked to the presence of immune-mediated arthritis, which progressively weakens the ligament and culminates in a break.

When a CCL ruptures, it is sometimes accompanied by damage to the menisci – cartilage plates that form a cushion between the femur and tibia. The bones can move so far out of place during a rupture that a meniscus is torn or bends. A recent study showed that 37 per cent of small dogs and 42 per cent of large dogs sustained a tear in a meniscus along with their ruptured cruciate ligament.

The pain of an acute CCL rupture can be so severe that the dog is three-legged lame. However, if only part of the ligament tears, the lameness is much milder. The chronic discomfort could be missed for a long time.

Veterinarians use several tests to diagnose a damaged CCL. Pushing the tibia forward relative to the femur tells veterinarians how much laxity there is in the ligament. Excessive movement – a drawer sign – means the ligament is broken or stretched. A second test is a tibial thrust in which the hock is flexed while the tibia is felt for forward movement.

Most veterinarians use a combination of these tests to make the diagnosis of a CCL rupture. Sometimes they must be done under sedation or anaesthetic to allow sufficient relaxation of the muscles to permit joint evaluation.

Radiographs may also be taken to assess the joint for arthritis and evidence of a damaged cruciate.

CCL damage is treated either medically or surgically, depending on the weight of the dog and the degree of instability. Eighty-five per cent of dogs under 15 kilograms, given rest only, become clinically normal within six months, or improve sufficiently to allow adequate function. In contrast, only 20 per cent of dogs over 15 kilograms improve with rest.

Given time, the joint capsule thickens and forms fibrous tissue. In small dogs, this is sufficient to stabilize the joint. Different methods have been used to speed or augment this process. Rest helps lessen strain and stretching of the joint. Cartrophen® injections reduce inflammation and speed healing. Acupuncture and chiropractic techniques have also claimed success.

For larger dogs, surgery is the preferred option for optimal long-term function. Surgery stabilizes the joint, speeds the rate of recovery, and minimizes degenerative changes in the stifle.

Surgical options for CCL rupture abound, but most repairs belong to one of two groups – either implantation of a false ‘ligament’ that mimics the action of the ruptured CCL, or changing the anatomy of the stifle joint itself.

In all techniques, the stifle joint is opened and inspected so that the CCL rupture can be confirmed and the menisci checked for injury. Damaged menisci are removed, eliminating a source of pain. The joint functions well without them. If a damaged meniscus is not discovered and treated, it will continue to cause discomfort and inhibit mobility.

The torn ligament cannot be repaired by simply suturing the ends together. The severed ends retract into the joint and are impossible to suture. Instead, the remnants are removed and a prosthesis is sewn into place to mimic the ligament’s action. In an intra-articular (inside the joint) technique, a strip of the patellar tendon (or other material) is passed through the joint, exits on the back side, and is anchored in place.

In extra-articular (outside the joint) repairs, a strong implant such as nylon is placed on the outside surface of the knee, connecting the femur to the tibia. It again mimics the CCL function and stabilizes the joint. A fibrous band eventually forms on the surface of the suture, adding strength to the repair.

Success of the surgery is based on how well the lameness resolves post-operatively. In one study involving an extra-articular repair, lameness more than two months after the surgery was seen in 23 to 30 per cent of large-breed dogs and seven to 11 per cent of small-breed dogs. In a newer study, 15 per cent of dogs had lameness two months postoperatively. This reduction could be due to a better technique or a more experienced surgeon.

The latest surgical technique to be used for cruciate ligament rupture is the tibial plateau levelling osteotomy (TPLO), which changes the joint’s anatomy. Instead of replacing the function of the cruciate ligament with an implant, a TPLO changes the forces in the joint that originally caused the CCL to rupture.

In a normal-standing dog, the natural slope of the top of the tibia (the tibial plateau) makes the tibia tend to slide forward with pressure from the femur. This puts constant strain on the CCL. When the stress becomes too great, the ligament ruptures.

In a TPLO, the top of the tibia is cut and rotated to change the angle of the plateau. After the surgery, when weight is put on the leg, the tibia tends to slide backward and does not need the CCL for stability.

The TPLO is a relatively new surgery and its merits are still being debated. A survey of 29 dogs that underwent a TPLO and were evaluated one year after surgery was reported in The Canadian Veterinary Journal. All the dogs were over 15 kilograms (considered large-breed dogs). None of the dogs was visibly lame at a walk or trot one year after surgery. Another study indicated that 7.3 per cent had lameness more than two months after surgery.

Surgery does not mean that arthritis doesn’t progress. Seventy-six per cent of the dogs that underwent a TPLO had measurable progression of arthritis in the affected joint. In extra-articular techniques, up to 100 per cent have arthritic progression on radiographs.

However, the degree of radiographic change correlates poorly to clinical function. Some dogs with horrible arthritis walk quite well.

Either technique, done by an experienced surgeon, can give satisfactory results. Which one is chosen depends on availability of a surgeon, and economics. A TPLO is approximately twice the cost of an extra-articular repair.

Research has begun to prove what all dog owners have known since we domesticated the species: dogs have emotions. They’re tail-wagging happy one moment and sad the next. And they grieve a loss in similar, yet different, ways than we do.

For humans, there are the well-documented psychological seven stages of grief:

1. shock and denial    2. pain and guilt   3. anger and bargaining   4. depression, rejection, loneliness   5. upward turn   6. reconstruction and working through   7. acceptance and hope.

Is it possible that dogs react in this way? Given that dogs emote, but don’t rationalize to the degree that humans do, we can assume that they: feel shock, but are not capable of formulating denial; endure pain, but are not wired to understand guilt; and feel depression and loneliness.

One of the elements of grief that dogs endure is a displacement in the hierarchy of the pack when another member dies. How does the rest of the pack know when a leader or follower in the pack is dead and not just temporarily absent? They probably don’t, unless the deceased member was clearly ill or very old and seen to be weakening; dogs can sniff that out easily.

The memory capacity of dogs tends to be short and the pack will compensate for the missing member fairly quickly. A dog owner can expedite that process by becoming the new leader or follower, and helping to restructure the social order of the other dog’s or dogs’ life.

One of the hardest things to do is step outside your own misery when you are in grieving, and help another. Whether your dog has lost a littermate, a favourite cat or a human member of the family, he may grieve deeply, even to the point of becoming lethargic or ill.

Despite your own emotions, stay positive, never be punitive to the mourning dog, and do things with your dog to solidify your bond. The surprise result is that your own grief will lessen as you focus on your pet.

Forgive a grieving dog if he becomes clingy; exercise patience and remember that time does and will heal the pain.

Owners can comfort a grieving dog by increasing the number of outings, and by staying close to the dog as a form of reassurance. Since dogs are lifelong learners, introducing new rituals will give them something else to focus on.

The comfort of familiar things helps, even allowing them to sleep on a deceased friend’s doggie-bed or snuggle with a human parent’s sweater; scent matters more to dogs than it does to us.

Provide distractions. Chasing a ball or Frisbee is fun and great exercise; a long walk makes for a healthy pastime and your dog will enjoy the smells along the way. Invite the dog’s favourite human friends over and let him be social with people and animals he enjoys.

Go slowly with replacing the dead pet. Disloyalty is an issue with some dogs. Gauge your dog’s grief level, and wait until he appears to have adjusted to the new normal.

Never doubt your dog’s emotions; they are pure, uncalculated, and real to your dog and to you. Because dogs cannot speak (well, not English, anyway), they demonstrate their feelings. As a dog parent, your greatest gift is to respect and nurture your dog’s feelings, be they joy or sorrow

Have you made your New Year’s resolutions? Here’s one suggestion – make a plan to care for your dog’s mouth. It’s easy to do, and your dog’s good health and fresh breath will be the reward. The goal with oral care differs between dogs and people. Dentists for humans try to keep the teeth in our mouths as long as possible. In dogs, we want the mouth free of pain and infection. Extracting a dog’s tooth is an acceptable procedure and can often dramatically improve oral and overall health. Canine oral care should begin in puppyhood. The idea is to recognize tooth issues early, before they have a chance to cause disease. Location A persistent deciduous (baby) tooth is the most common dental problem in puppies. If an adult tooth has erupted through the gum, the deciduous tooth should already be out. If it isn’t, it needs to be removed without delay so the adult tooth will end up in a desirable position. An example is a retained lower canine tooth. If the deciduous tooth is still present when the adult emerges, the adult tooth may be located too far toward the midline where it makes a hole in the palate. The best time to look for persistent teeth in dogs is at five months of age. Malocclusion means that the teeth are not in the standard position. It needs attention if it is causing discomfort or preventing the jaw from moving properly. Small-breed dogs, especially brachycephalic breeds, can suffer from dental crowding with their teeth growing sideways or overlapping. Selective extractions of less-important teeth allow the remaining teeth to spread out, creating a functional mouth. Missing or deformed teeth Teeth are sometimes missing in dogs, most commonly in the lower jaw. In most cases, nothing needs to be done. However, un-erupted teeth (ones that haven’t penetrated the gum tissue) can be a problem. A hidden tooth is prone to developing a dentigerous cyst that can destroy the bone around it, ending in fracture of the jawbone. Pups that have missing teeth at six to eight months of age should have a dental radiograph. Any un-erupted tooth found should be extracted to prevent the formation of a cyst. Deformed teeth are another issue. It may be a tooth with poorly formed enamel. This occurs if a puppy suffers from an infection during the tooth-forming process. These teeth are prone to cavities and rapid tartar buildup. Other teeth may have roots or crowns fused together, creating a situation where an abscess is likely. Some deformed teeth require extraction. Plaque Thankfully, most dogs start out with healthy teeth. Unfortunately, they collect plaque, which then mineralizes to form tartar. This acts as a source for bacteria and can lead to gum infections, but more importantly, secondary infections in the liver and kidneys, and on the heart valves. When veterinarians do blood tests on dogs with “dirty” mouths, they can often spot elevations in enzymes that suggest liver damage. With the pathology that veterinarians see in dogs’ mouths, it’s obvious that preventive care is lacking. The solution is home care – removing plaque daily. The best way to accomplish this is daily brushing. As well, various diets, treats and chew toys can help the process. But, the thing to remember is that home care does not eliminate established disease in the mouth. It is essential to start with a clean, healthy mouth. Care must start in a puppy, or in an adult after the mouth has been professionally cleaned. Hopefully, you can consider teeth care in your 2010 New Year’s resolutions. Begin by having your dog’s mouth evaluated by your veterinarian. Then, start your preventive program. This will maximize oral health and keep the body healthy, but more importantly, prevent your dog from suffering mouth pain. A multi-published writer, Jeff Grognet, D.V.M., runs a veterinary practice in Qualicum Beach, B.C., along with his wife, Louise Janes, D.V.M.